T cell receptor structures, rearrangement, and T cell activation and top 5 difference between T cell and B Cell receptor

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T cell receptors (TCRs) are critical components of the adaptive immune system. They are responsible for recognizing antigens, which are specific molecules or fragments from pathogens (like viruses and bacteria) that trigger an immune response. Understanding TCRs is essential for grasping how T cells function in immune surveillance and response. Imagine a battleground where microscopic … Read more

Somatic hybridization | Protoplast fusion

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Somatic hybridization is the technique of hybrid production through the fusion of isolated somatic(body) protoplasts under in vitro conditions and subsequent development of their product (heterokaryon) to a hybrid plant. This involves – A. Fusion of protoplast cells – 1. Treatment with NaNO3 – 1ST Rerport by power et al., 1970. In this method NaNO3 … Read more

Protoplast isolation, culture, application

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To understand the protoplast isolation, lets Imagine being able to take two completely different plants—one resistant to drought, the other producing high-yield crops—and fusing them into a single super-plant. What if you could manipulate individual cells and create hybrids that nature never could? Welcome to the fascinating world of protoplast isolation, where we strip cells … Read more

Chloroplast transformation, method and application

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What is Chloroplast Transformation? Chloroplast transformation refers to the genetic modification of chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) to express foreign genes. This process involves introducing exogenous genes into the chloroplast genome using specific vectors. Unlike nuclear transformation, which targets the nuclear DNA, chloroplast transformation directly alters the chloroplast’s genome, allowing for the production of specific proteins within … Read more

Callus Culture

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Callus Culture

Imagine we want to study how plants grow in space or create plants with super resistance to diseases. But growing full plants can be slow, space-consuming, and hard to control. This is where callus culture come in. They allow us to grow plant cells in a lab under controlled conditions, making it easier to understand … Read more

Transgenic Plants for Improved Quality

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Imagine biting into a perfectly ripe, juicy tomato. Now, imagine that same tomato, but it stays fresh and delicious for weeks rather than days. What if farmers could consistently grow fruits and vegetables that not only taste better but also last longer, reducing waste and boosting food security? Quality in agriculture isn’t just about taste; … Read more

Classification of Data in Biostatistics

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Raw data are highly disorganized and often large and bulky, making it difficult to manage and analyze. Drawing meaningful conclusions from such data can be a tedious process, as they do not readily lend themselves to statistical methods. To facilitate systematic statistical analysis, it is essential to properly organize and present this data. Therefore, after … Read more

Disease resistance Transgenic plants

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Disease resistant transgenic palnt

Disease resistance Transgenic plants are the plants created through genetic engineering by transferring desired gene into target plant or crops to enhance their ability to resist specific pathogens. Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins Example – experiment Expression of Heterologous α-Thionins Ectopic Expression of PR Proteins Among the most well-characterized pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins are those exhibiting chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase … Read more

Edible Vaccines

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edible vaccine

Edible vaccines are a form of oral immunization where a transgenic plant is modified to produce vaccine antigens. Edible vaccines represent a groundbreaking approach to vaccination that involves genetically modifying plants to produce antigenic proteins capable of stimulating an immune response. These vaccines are embedded in everyday foods, such as fruits or vegetables, and when … Read more